A Brief History of Medicine (from FREE-VECTORS.NET) By Penelope Baxter

A lot of humans take medicine, vaccines, and pills for granted. But not so long ago, they did not exist. We will go through 5 most taken-for-granted medicines and cures and a bit of history about them. 

1. Band-Aids

The company Johnson & Johnson manufactures this product. It started when a cotton supplier for Johnson & Johnson's wife kept cutting herself. But in those days even a papercut could lead to infection. So, the supplier partnered with Johnson & Johnson to create a special type of bandage. It was a 18 x 3 strip of Band-Aid. The idea was to cut off what you needed. This became very popular, and soon it was sold in 1 x 3 in little boxes. You might have heard the jingle. It's along the lines of: “Stuck on Band-Aid Brand ‘cause..” Fun fact, this jingle was written by Barry Manilow. You also might have seen that it is “Band-Aid Brand” instead of Band-Aid.  Johnson & Johnson really wants to push that it is a brand, and not to become commonplace words like “Popsicle” and “Q-Tip”. Unfortunately, it is. 

2. Penicillin

Penicillin was discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. He was growing Staphylococcus in his lab when he left on a vacation to Paris from Russia. When he came back, a mold was growing on his petri dishes. The mold kept the Staphylococcus from growing out and around. Fleming studied it more over another few months. He soon patented it as penicillin. The first use of penicillin was in 1943 when Albert Alexander was shot. The story usually has it that Albert Alexander pricked his finger on a rose and got infected. But according to his daughter, Sheila LeBlanc, it turns out that Alexander had been shot and got the staph infection. If you’re wondering about how they got enough mold (90 gallons), the answer is from a cantaloupe. Charles Fletcher had his assistant go to the store and buy the moldiest cantaloupe there. And it worked. 

3. Surgery 

Surgery is a long concept over thousands of years. In this section we will go from bleeding and cupping to now. Starting with bleeding and cupping, this treatment involves the four humours. If you don’t know about this theory of medicine, this is the basic idea. You have four bodily substances, phlegm, blood, black bile, and yellow bile. The amount of it you have determines your medical condition. Bleeding and cupping is when you take a knife, cut someone opposite of their pain, and bleed them. That is it. And we believed this would work for, and this is crazy, 2,000 years. Next up is amputation. This is just taking a knife and fully slicing off a leg or something. Eventually we evolved to surgery. But in this case, there is no sleeping gas. Instead you do it quickly with the patient still conscious. We then got to adding the sleeping gas. Fun fact, for a long time it was taboo to work on the heart. In fact, the first heart surgery was done with a pump that did the heart's job while we sliced it open. 

We hope you learned something today about the cures and medicine we all take for granted. 

Sources:

“Sawbones: A Marital Tour of Misguided Medicine” Podcast by Justin and Sydnee McElroy, “Wow in the World” by Guy Raz and Mindy Thomas, The Anthropocene Reviewed by John Green, 

Pigeons: A History of a Very Cool Bird by Penelope Baxter

When you hear the word pigeon, you probably think of a pest. A pooping city bird that steals your fries. But it turns out that pigeons are all that. In this article, your mind will be changed about the rock dove. 

Starting with the first point. Doves are pigeons, and pigeons are doves. Yes, those pretty white wedding birds are pigeons. Why do we like these, and not the humble city pigeon? To prove this point, it is time to bring in taxonomy, or the categorization of organisms. It goes in the order Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, and Spesies. All doves and pigeons belong to the family Columbidae. And, if we love doves so much we have them at weddings, why not pigeons? 

For the second point, there are multiple species of pigeons. The species you probably think of is the rock dove or common pigeon. You’ve also probably also heard of the extinct passenger pigeon. And the dodo was the largest member of the family Columbidae. But, some other pretty pigeons are the Jacobson pigeon, Victoria Crowned pigeons, and bleeding heart doves. Victoria Crowned pigeons don't even look like pigeons. You’d think they are peacocks. But they are pigeons, and they eat poop. And, people will breed pigeons, as well as pigeon beauty pageants. 

Point number 3. A history. Pigeons go way back. Back when we were primarily farmers, and the internet was not a concept. Originally, pigeons had roost and nested on rocky cliff faces. And humans were storing their grain in barns. Pigeons would fly away to eat the grain, and eventually humans realized that they always knew where it was and how to get back home. So they domesticated pigeons, or kept them as pets. Which means ancient humans wanted them around. They were used as messengers, and slept in dovecotes. But then, phones and other more efficient messaging came along, and pigeons were forgotten. Cities were built, and the pigeons came too, thinking they were still of use. We have erased this, and hate them now. They just want to be with us and survive. As a side note, it is estimated that all pigeons you see are feral. All their ancestors were domesticated, and now that they are released, they are feral. 

Point number 4. Not just pigeon breeders like pigeons. Nikola Tesla said about a pigeon: “I loved that pigeon as a man loves a woman, and she loved me. As long as I had her, there was a purpose to my life.” Charles Darwin loved pigeons, and they helped him understand how evolution worked. 

Point number 5. There are famous pigeons too. We’ll showcase the story of Cher Ami. Cher Ami was a soldier. During World War II, multiple pigeons were enlisted in the army as messengers. Cher Ami was one of them, alongside other pigeons such as Mary, Paddy, and G.I. Joe. There was a group of Allies soldiers trapped, and the Allies were planning on bombing the place where the soldiers were being held. The soldiers had Cher Ami send a message. But the pigeon had to cross an active battlefield. The pigeon suffered many blows, as well as one through the chest, but they survived. Cher Ami got the letter to the Allies, and the soldiers were rescued and safe. 

Extra Pigeon Facts:

• Pigeons can count to 10.

• Pigeons can spell some words.

• Pigeons can tell the difference between a Mone painting and a Picasso painting.

• Pigeons are the only bird to produce milk. 

• People eat baby pigeons, called squab.

Nanobots Will Soon Be In Our Blood by Tara Gopalan

We’ve all seen movies or read books that show futuristic technology, like mind control or magic healing. Sadly, doctors don’t have this technology, and can’t use it to heal people. Or can they? What would you think if I told you that tiny pill-sized robots can do precise surgery from inside your body? Well, as of October 2024, that idea has been made into reality.

The human body is an extremely complex machine, so it’s hard for doctors and scientists to address problems when they arise. People with cancer are often diagnosed very late, which could cause them to die. Elderly people and babies who need vitamin supplements may not be able to swallow properly, making it impossible to treat them. Removing tumors from delicate areas like the brain and chest is extremely difficult, especially for those who have other health conditions. All these issues could be solved by a couple pill-sized robots, called nanobots. 

According to IFL Science, tiny robots are already being used on animals to recognise and remove cancer cells: they can travel through your blood and treat areas as needed. This technology is now being adapted to human needs and conditions, with cameras so that they can be controlled on the outside by scientists. So far, medical drug distribution hasn’t been very precise, and has caused harmful side effects to patients. These tiny robots can inject micro-doses into specific veins or tissues, making surgery and treatment much more effective. 

Scientists at Harvard Medical School theorize that in the future, these robots may be used not just for treatment, but as permanent functions of our bodies to monitor our health. With these advances, chronic illnesses can be diagnosed earlier, saving countless lives. If the robots were used in the creation of medicines, then many viruses like the common cold or Covid 19 could be stopped from spreading as easily. There will always be a new health condition or virus popping up in the world, but hopefully with nanobots, we can make the world a safer place to live in. 

To conclude, we still have a ways to go before these robots can be used on humans as a common practice. There’s a lot to consider and learn, but we are definitely making progress in the medical world. Of course, this doesn’t mean we should stop using conventional methods like  hand washing and sanitizer! Hopefully, when the technology is fully developed, it will be used for the greater good- not for manipulation like in the movies! 

Work Cited

“Nanobots Will Be Flowing Through Your Body by 2030.” NanoApps Medical, 13 October 2024, https://www.nanoappsmedical.com/nanobots-will-be-flowing-through-your-body-by-2030/. Accessed 21 October 2024.

Earth's Temporary Second Moon is Here by Finn Alves

On September 29th 2024, an asteroid entered Earth's atmosphere. This asteroid was caught in Earth's gravitational pull, creating a second Moon. This moon is going to orbit earth until it escapes Earth’s gravity in late November. This is Earth's second Moon, also known as a mini moon, and is named “PT5”.

This all seems really cool, which it is, but there is a catch. It appears really, really tiny, we need professional telescopes to be able to see it. Another event like this one occurred in 2022, its name was “NX1”, and there have  been even more instances of a second moon entering earth's atmosphere, like in 1981, but the 2022 moon and the 1981 moon were both actually NX1.

There isn't a huge amount of information about this second moon but this was the basics of what it is, how long until it leaves, and other occurrences like this one. If you get an opportunity to go and see it through a telescope you definitely should! NX1 won't return until 2051(27 years from now) and the current second moon, PT5 will comeback next in 2055(31 years from now) so if your 10 years old now and you miss the 2 month window this year, you'll have to try again when you in your 41 years old! So take a chance if you get it, it could be once in a lifetime!

Source: https://www.wearegreenbay.com/news/national/earths-2nd-moon-has-arrived-what-you-need-to-know

When Are These Seasonal Fruits In Season? by Liam Scheeler

This article will show you the best time of year to purchase your fruits and how to tell if those are ripe

Image Source: Unsplash

Apricots

Best in season: May - July (summer fruit)

Ripe test: High fragrance 

Cantaloupes

Best in season: June - September (summer fruit)

Ripe test: Firm, gives on flower & stem ends

Cherries

Best in season: Late May - August (summer fruit)

Ripe test: Easy decision by looks and feel 

Grapefruit

Best in season: September - May (winter fruit)

Ripe test: Softness - should feel soft

Honeydew

Best in season: June - September (summer fruit)

Ripe test: Rhind should be white or light yellow - don’t let the green ones fool you

Mango

Best in season: May - September (summer fruit)

Ripe test: Should feel slightly soft, avoid firm of overly soft ones

Nectarines

Best in season: June - Early September (summer fruit)

Ripe test: Should feel soft but not too soft, avoid firm-feeling fruits (same rule for peaches)

Oranges

Best in season: November - January (winter fruit) (Note: oranges can be sold at other times, despite this being the best season for them.)

Ripe test: Thinner, vibrantly colored skin 

Peaches

Best in season: June - Early September (summer fruit)

Ripe test: Should feel soft but not too soft, avoid firm-feeling fruits

Pomegranates

Best in season: Late September - Nov/Decemeber (fall fruit)

Ripe test: Easy to mark with fingernail 

Quince

Best in season: September - November (fall fruit)

Ripe test: Floral scent

Watermelon

Best in season: June - September (summer fruit)

Ripe test: Should have large yellow spot; deeply colored & fairly heavy for size

Note: Not all fruits are included due to availability to be

 sold at an ideal stage year-round.

How Farming Shapes Us: How We Have Evolved to Rely on Farming By William Petersen

You might think, “Oh, I don’t rely on farming that much.” But you might rely on it more than you think. There are many types of farming, including dairy, agricultural, cotton, trees, and so many more. All things trace back to farming. Here’s why.

Farming has had a significant impact on our lives, playing a crucial role in providing the essential materials that sustain us. It's fascinating how the process of farming has evolved, with the use of modern machines and innovative strategies, making production more efficient and rapid. Despite some people underestimating its significance, farming is essential for our everyday lives. Farmers work tirelessly to cultivate food ingredients and raise livestock, benefiting our nourishment and providing entertainment. This dedication and hard work contribute to the growth of new crops and the expansion of agricultural fields. Crops such as wheat and corn play a fundamental role in feeding both humans and animals, highlighting the invaluable contribution of farming to our society.

You might think, “Maybe farming does provide us with ingredients, but companies turn them into the stuff we use, so you should probably be writing about them.” No. If all the farmers stopped farming and started turning materials into products, the supply chain would collapse. Farmers are crucial for keeping us happy and healthy throughout our lives, so that is why I am writing about them.

Another argument one could make is in terms of animal rights. Some farmers treat animals to get more products for more money, but end up abusing animals. There will always be abusive people, but the farmers who care for the animals, and whose goal is to help humanity, wouldn’t be violating rights. 

In conclusion, farming has shaped us and proven almost all of us wrong about the need for farms and farmers. Farmers work hard for little pay now. So next time you see a farm, think about what they do for you before you just shrug and pass by. 

The Life Of A Tropical Storm 🍥 By Liam Scheeler

Africa Rains

At the start of every cyclone, all you’ll find is some showers sweeping off the coast of Africa. 60-85% of the hurricanes you’ll encounter a season start at this very place and stage. 

Usually, small islands off the coast named the Cabo Verde are impacted by rains from these storms moving off the coast and into the ocean.

Traveling The MDR

After these thunderstorms move off the coast, weather companies notice these as ‘tropical waves’. Tropical waves are thunderstorms in the ocean that have potential to grow stronger as it moves farther westward. 

However, there are many factors that lead to the formation of this, and if it doesn’t follow all these rules, it will not form. 

Water Temperatures: the water  it is traveling across must be at least 78 degrees Fahrenheit.

Air Conditions: These thunderstorms will not organize if the air contains Saharan dust. This is why few hurricanes form in July, as Saharan dust is expanding across the MDR.

Frontal Systems: Iff a thunderstorm here interacts with a high pressure system, the thunderstorms will weaken and not form.

Wind Shear: If the storm runs into wind shear, this will weaken it significantly.

Storms can easily grow significantly traveling across the MDR. 

For example, Beryl, a late June major hurricane, was able to go from tropical wave status to a Category 5 hurricane just in the MDR. This process is called rapid intensification. We are seeing that now with Hurricane Helene in the Gulf Of Mexico.

A Path To Take

Once the hurricane comes near the Lesser Antilles, it has a decision.

It will either go north, resulting in a mostly ‘fish storm’ (a storm that spends its life out to sea).

However, sometimes the path can shift westward far after, and result in a potential Canadian threat.

The hurricane can also make landfall in the Lesser Antillies, continuing a western slide.

Unfortunately, these small islands often aren't big enough to significantly weaken the storm, and the storm may continue strengthening in the Caribbean. Now it has to make landfall. This will either take place on a Caribbean island, or it will go further into the Gulf Of Mexico.

Lastly, it could shift northwest and impact the Atlantic seaboard.

Pre-Landfall and Landfall

For the best understanding, lets use a hypothetical scenario: 

This storm takes the Caribbean path in September. Right now it is organized enough to be considered a named tropical storm as it passes the Lesser Antillies. The Caribbean waters are very warm at this time of year, and often share plenty of moisture. Now you've got a hurricane on your hands by the time  it approaches the Gulf Of Mexico. The heated, deep waters at this time are perfect for a hurricane to strengthen. The Category 2 hurricane is now going to reach major hurricane status, if nothing at the time is blocking it like the common conflict of wind shear, preventing much strength of the storm.

So, it makes landfall in Florida as a major hurricane.

A major hurricane is going to bring winds of 111+ MPH. A Cat 5 could even be 157+. For comparison, what you call a windy day is 20 MPH. 

The flooding gets even crazier. The storm surge, which is the amount of water getting pushed onto land, is 9-18 feet of water. An average house stands 20 feet high.

This causes 10s of billions of dollars in damage.

Aftermath

After the storm interacts with land, there will be no moisture for it to collect, causing it to quickly weaken. By the time it goes far inland, all that is left is rain and maybe some winds.

The areas affected by the storm lay in ruins. It's described like an EF 1 or 2 tornado has hit the space – but hundreds of miles wide.

If the storm's remnants were to precipitate in the rocky mountains areas in the fall months, sometimes this can cause heavy snow.

A Final Space Story: Ed Dwight Flies After 60 Years Of Waiting By Kale Cunningham

Edward Dwight is a 90-year-old man, one of the first African American test pilots in the United States Air Force, he’s a sculptor and a published author. In many ways, he’s a man of many faces. But now he has another title, a title that he wanted over 60 years ago; astronaut. 

High Flying

Dwight loved planes ever since he was a little boy. At the age of four, he would build little models of airplanes made out of orange crates in his backyard, and toss them into the air. He would watch in astonishment as they glided across the yard. He was born and raised in the racially segregated Kansas City, Kansas area in the 1930s. Dwight excelled at school, was gifted in mechanics, and was an avid reader. After completing high school, Dwight was unsure of what to do next. More than anything he wanted to be an Air Force pilot but at the current time, almost no black pilots were in the military. So he enrolled at the Kansas City Junior College and graduated with an Associate of Arts degree in engineering in 1953. By the time he graduated, some black pilots were enlisted in the Air Force, this gave Dwight enough to pursue his dream of flying and he enlisted into the military.

Dwight completed all of his training at Lackland Air Force Base in Texas, afterwards he was assigned to Williams Air Force Base, in Arizona. He took additional night classes studying Latian. Throughout 6 years Dwight earned the rank of captain in the Air Force and later participated in test piloting and aerospace research.

A Different Race In Space

*It was 1959, and at the time Massachusetts Senator John F. Kennedy was holding a meeting with some of the most influential civil rights leaders of the time; Dr. Martin Luther King, Whitney Young, Philip Randolph, and the Senator brothers; Bobby Kennedy. The men were discussing how to break down barriers of discrimination and racism in the United States. The story goes that Whitney Young of the National Urban League suggested putting a black astronaut into space. It seemed like a good path to pave in the long road of desegregating the country after all the Mercury 7 astronauts had just been announced and the United States was in a deadlock space race with the Soviet Union. NASA was receiving a tremendous amount of funding from Congress, some would say that NASA had a limitless budget. A black astronaut in space was green-lighted by John F. Kennedy in the summer of 1960 when his presidential campaign was ramping up. 

*There is no official historical record of this meeting therefore making it questionable.* 

A group of government employees went out searching for a black test pilot who would fit the requirements for spaceflight. After surveying and observing all of the top pilots in the military, they found one. Ed Dwight was offered the chance to become an astronaut, and he accepted. At first Dwight was overjoyed, he was going to be a part of history, and he was going to make a statement to a separated country that a different race could fly into the heavens. But Dwight never expected the media coverage and backlash he received. He was on the page of every newspaper, was interviewed several times a day, and made it onto magazine covers, his personal life was torn upside down by all of the death threats sent to his house. 

Although Dwight had experience with flying he was thrown into a loop before he could begin normal astronaut training, Dwight would attend pre-astronaut flight training. These sessions were taught by Chuck Yeager, the first man to break the speed of sound. But Yeager was not a friend of Dwight, the famed pilot was disgusted by the idea of a black man in space. The day before Dwight arrived for training, Yeager told all of the pilots to not speak to Dwight. Over several months, Yeager repeatedly attempted to make sure Dwight would fail his training. He could come up with near-impossible tasks that only Dwight would have to complete, to his instructor's dismay he passed anything that Yeager would throw at him. Everyone else was trying to get Dwight to fail as well, politicians and military officers attempted to remove him from the training. 

But there was one man who supported Dwight, President Kennedy made sure that the efforts to remove the first black astronaut were in vain. No one would dare question the president's decision. It seemed like Dwight would be selected for NASA after all. 

Grounded 

When Kennedy was assassinated in November 1963, the dream of the black astronaut in space seemed to die with him. Dwight lost his support, protection, and dream, it was clear that the new president Lyndon B. Johnson wanted nothing to do with him. Without support from the White House Dwight became discouraged, the angry politicians would kick him out to the curb any day now and his family was receiving so much threatening mail. So Dwight quit, resigned from the Air Force, and decided to pursue sculpting. He made his own Art Studio called Ed Dwight Studios, where he displays many of his fine art pieces. Dwight has created 129 memorial sculptures and over 18,000 gallery pieces. Even though he couldn’t go to space Dwight was happy to fulfill his career in sculpting. 

A Second Chance 

Dwight fulfilled his dream to go to space on May 19, 2024. He was 90 when the privately owned Blue Origin Aerospace company selected him for a suborbital spaceflight. When the rocket launched, he was reportedly laughing the whole time, "Fantastic! A life-changing experience. Everyone needs to do this!" he remarked. "I didn't know I needed this in my life, but now I need it in my life." The whole flight lasted about 10 minutes.  

But this may not be the end of spaceflight for Dwight however, "I want to go into orbit. I want to go around the Earth and see the whole Earth. That's what I want to do now." he said in an interview the next day. 

Well what can I say? After all, he reached space. 

Acknowledgements

I have loved writing for the PFMS times, but now I must say goodbye in my final article. I would like to thank my editors Mr. Cimino and Mr. Harper for fixing my many grammatical errors, I would like to thank my father Mr. Cunningham for publishing my articles, I would like to thank my friends and family for encouraging me to write what I love, and I would like to thank NASA and all of the other space programs that have given me something to write about. 

It's been an honor 

-Kale Cunningham :)

Sources: NPR, USA Today, CBS 

The Ocean’s Last Call: What plastic pollution is and why we must act now by Louisa Hudson

Introduction

One flap of a butterfly’s wings can cause a tornado on the other side of the earth; a phrase which means, “something small and seemingly harmless can cause a catastrophic event.” In this case, the butterfly is not a butterfly, it is a plastic bottle. And the tornado isn’t a tornado, but the end of the ocean, and thus, the world.

Pollution’s problem

Some people think that ocean pollution doesn’t affect us much. But it does. A lot. Let’s say that an ocean gets polluted with plastic. Fish eat that plastic. Maybe somebody then catches a poisoned fish. They sell it to a restaurant. A person asks for the fish and eats it. Even though you may not think plastic would last that long, it takes the plastic bags you buy from grocery stores 10-20 years to decompose. For some harder plastics, it can take thousands of years. And even then, it’s not really gone, it’s just really small. The ocean also feeds the rivers, and underground water sources, into a river. According to Newsella’s “Texas’ Gulf Coast is being battered by ‘nurdle’ pollution", the toxic chemicals that come from the plastics can seep out and pollute the water. The plastic also breaks down into microscopic pieces of plastic. Now every animal that drinks from that river is poisoned. The water flows for miles to a farm. It gets used to water the crops. The crops suck the chemicals up through their roots. They get sprinkled with a snow of microscopic poison. This goes on and on. One bottle doesn’t seem like much, but to the animals, it is the start of a pandemic.

Greenish-blue and microkillers

The ocean is a greenish-blue. Everyone knows that. But ‘blue’ only scrapes the surface. Almost everything about the ocean that is important is deeper down. Newsella’s “Texas’ Gulf Coast is being battered by "nurdle" pollution" shows you there is so much more down there than fish, coral, octopuses, and seaweed. There is death. Street name: plastic. Plastic harms the ocean in many ways. It absorbs dangerous chemicals, which many animals mistake for food. And if the chemicals don’t kill them first, the trash clogs and cuts their intestines. If the plastic is hard and cuts the inside, it can cause internal bleeding. Water and food can't flow if it is softer and clog the intestine. But what exactly happens to plastic? Microplastics can come from many different things. From fraying shirts, (yes, shirts), to water thrashing against bigger plastics. Microplastics are often no bigger than a red blood cell!

Disposing of Death

It’s obvious how horrible and dangerous plastic pollution is, but there are many ways that people can help eradicate it. You can take either direct or indirect action. Because, believe it or not, both are equally important. Direct action helps quickly. It can be anything from not using plastic grocery bags to organizing a thousand-person campaign. But there is an in-between! You can pick up litter before it goes into the ocean. Make sure to recycle any and all plastic you can. Or even making sure you use plastic substitutes. But how can indirect action possibly be as important as direct action? Indirect action can be a poster or a speech. A website or an article. Indirect action teaches people, you can’t fix something you don’t know is broken. Indirect action may not fix much, but it does tell other people that there is something to fix. Not everyone can solely take indirect action, but somewhere in the chain, somebody will. Overall, solutions to problems like this are complicated. But every journey starts with one step. No matter the size.

Conclusion

It might seem impossible, but the impossible is just a filler word for what hasn’t yet been achieved. A single flap of a butterfly’s wings might be able to create a tornado, but a single fire can light 100 torches. Let future generations see the oceans as they should be. Greenish-blue. Life in every corner. Together, we can stop ocean pollution. All we need is one person to be the fire. Be that fire, others will follow. 

Works Cited

https://newsela.com/view/ck9nool0707150iqje9z2bup4/?levelId=ck7ecxabu113u14p746o5nqtv.

Microbeads on a red blood cell, SEM. Photograph. Britannica ImageQuest, Encyclopædia Britannica, Nov 02 2020. quest.eb.com/images/132_3056045. Accessed 24 May 2024.

Everything You Need to Know About Ancylostoma Duodenale By Atlas Murray-Wright

What is Ancylostoma Duodenale?

Ancylostoma Duodenale is the scientific name for the Old Worm Hookworm. It gets its name from the fact that it is found almost only in old world countries ( in Africa, Asia, and Europe). The hookworm is one of the two species of hookworms that use humans as their hosts. The other species is Necator Americanus. Ancylostoma Duodenale gets nutrients from the blood of the host. That means it is officially categorized as a parasite. 

The Life Cycle of the Species

Ancylostoma Duodenale has three different stages in its life cycle:  Eggs, Larvae, and Adults. Eggs of hookworms need warm and moist conditions to survive. Although if it is too wet, they will die. Eggs will hatch, and the larva hookworms will emerge. Crawling into position (normally on a moist blade of grass), the larvae will wait until a host comes along. Hookworm larvae are especially adapted to enter the human body through pores. They can enter through any pore in the body, but they most commonly enter through the feet. When a person steps on a hookworm larva, the act of entering the body irritates the skin. The skin becomes itchy and irritated for a little bit. This can be called a “ground itch.”

Larva

Once in the circulatory system, the larva will make their way to the throat and lungs. They will then be coughed up by the unsuspecting human and swallowed into the digestive tract. Once in the digestive system, they carefully make their way to the lower intestines. This is where they get the second part of their name, Duodenale which means lower intestines. This will be their home for the rest of their life. 

Adults, and When the Problem Begins

Once embedded, the hookworm  becomes an adult. Now both eggs and larvae are not able to be seen by the naked eye, but adults are able to be seen, although they are so small that most people will never be able to spot one. They just look like very small wriggling maggots. Hookworms are equipped with an extremely sharp mouth which they use to cut into the intestinal wall, gorging themselves on the host's blood, they gain enough energy to begin reproducing. 

Reproducing 

Ancylostoma Duodenale is incapable of asexual reproduction. So if you only get one hookworm inside of you, it will eventually die and the problem will not escalate further. The problem comes when you get multiple. They reproduce at a very fast rate, pumping out eggs. These eggs exit in the hosts' feces. Then the cycle continues. 

Symptoms 

Depending on the size of infection, the symptoms can vary, but the most common symptoms are anemia, pica, a bloated stomach, wide eyes, a shuffling stance, and depending on the time someone got the infection, deformed limbs. The hookworms can deprive the body of a lot of blood which can be disastrous for most organs. When young children get large hookworm infections, they can grow up to be a lot smaller and not developing to full maturity. 

Prevention 

Hookworm cases can increase with a lack of proper sanitation. When a latrine is not properly taken care of it can easily become a health hazard. If there is no safe place to defecate, people resort to the woods. When their feces contain eggs, hookworm infections can easily spread. Thankfully, hookworm infections are easy to treat. A dosage of Thymol (depending on the size of the infection multiple dosages may be needed) which comes from ferns, can easily get rid of the parasites. Thymol is easy to get and cheap. Hookworm infections are now very rare in 1st and 2nd world countries.

Why Does this Matter?

The truth is, it doesn’t really matter. I can almost guarantee that nobody who reads this will ever get infected with hookworms. Sometimes learning about new things is intriguing. I know not everyone enjoys parasites (I’m squeamish at the sight of blood, I get you), but learning something new for the sake of the collection of knowledge is a worthwhile plight. 

Birds: There’s Still Time to Save Them by Emily Gilbert

You may think that birds aren’t endangered or are even being harmed. But the truth is that bird species are declining faster and faster. 

Birds are being harmed by people and nature. For example, light pollution harms birds during migration, especially the species that migrate at night. Light pollution makes it harder for birds to migrate because it blocks out the stars that birds need to navigate at night. 

Another example is window strikes; if a bird hits your window and flies away and seems fine you're wrong. Most birds die after hitting a window. You may think if one bird dies it’s no big deal, but this study shows that the bird population has decreased by 2.9 billion in the past fifty years in the USA. 

But what can we do? There are many things you can do to help. Some things you can do are: use decor on windows that birds can see, like window clings. You can also put up bird feeders and bird houses. You can place plants that look like a habitat away from windows. And remember, there's still time to save the birds. 

Starliner Ready To Fly...Finally by Kale Cunningham

One billion dollars has been poured into the Starliner project in the past ten years. The spacecraft, built by Boeing, one of the largest aircraft industry companies in the world, and operated by NASA is due to launch two astronauts to the International Space Station (ISS) on May 6th. However, it's been a long road for Starliner to reach the launch pad. 

The Set Backs 

Starliner was selected by NASA in 2013 for its new Commercial Crew Program. At first, Boeing was overjoyed by their proposal being selected. The spacecraft was intended to be a low-cost, partially reusable space capsule that could carry a crew of 7 to the ISS. Boeing quickly got to work and within six years Boeing engineers were confident that the spacecraft was fit to carry humans into space. However, NASA had a list of regulations that Starliner would need to prove, not in a simulation but in space. Boeing would need to send Starliner on an unmanned flight test, to and back from ISS with as little error as possible. Despite this many of Boeing's top officials were confident that Starliner would perform well.

In December 2019, Starliner lifted off from Cape Canaveral Florida, and into the deep void of space. The launch was flawless, Starliner separated from the rocket perfectly and was operating normally. That's when the trouble started, the spacecraft’s Mission Elapsed Time (MET) clock was off by several minutes. This caused the spacecraft to fire its engines at the wrong time causing it to enter an entirely different orbit. The spacecraft no longer had enough fuel to reach the ISS. So the mission was called off early. When Starliner attempted to land on Earth, it came in at a steeper angle than it was supposed to, which caused it to land too fast. Afterward, NASA declared that Starliner would have to fly another unmanned mission to prove that was flightworthy. 

Heartbroken Boeing engineers brought the spacecraft back for inspection in early February 2020. They had just started fixing the spacecraft's computer bugs when COVID-19 came. This caused massive delays in the program. After two years of struggle, Boeing finally launched Starliner on its second flight in May 2022. The spacecraft performed all of the required expectations well. And docked with the ISS like it was supposed to, the landing was also uneventful. NASA then approved it for its first manned flight.  

The Flight

Starliner is due for launch on Monday, May 6. And this could be Boeing's chance to prove itself. This year, many of Boeing's airplanes have been breaking apart mid-flight. Although all the planes have landed safely, there have been no crashes yet. According to the FAA, around 200 737-9 MAX planes made by Boeing have been grounded this year. Boeing hopes that the Starliner mission will go well so that they can revive their recently smudged public image. Despite the buzz around Boeing’s reliability, NASA has complete confidence in Starliner. 

“We feel very safe and very comfortable when this spacecraft flies,” said Suni Williams, one of the astronauts flying onboard Starliner in a press conference earlier this week. “This is where we’re supposed to be.”

The launch is scheduled at 10:40 p.m. on Monday

Sources:

https://blogs.nasa.gov/commercialcrew/

https://www.faa.gov/

Four Current Space Missions Aimed At Helping Our Environment by Kale Cunningham

In celebration of Earth Day, I’ve decided to point out four current space missions that are helping us save our planet right now. 

EMIT

Currently onboard the International Space Station (ISS) is the Earth Surface Mineral Dust Source Investigation (nicknamed EMIT), which has been observing the Earth since July 2022. The spacecraft studies dust particles which are lifted into our atmosphere by strong winds and can block out sunlight. EMIT is designed to observe these events and scientists on Earth to study the data it sends back in greater detail. 
Landsat 9

Launched in September 2021, Landsat 9 takes a look at many different environmental problems such as deforestation, urban expansion, climate change, water pollution, and natural and man-made disasters. Using the information that the probe sends back NASA can alert other government agencies that deal with these growing problems.

ICESat-2

For the past several years ICESat-2 has been observing the melting ice sheets in the polar regions of Earth. The spacecraft scans the surface of the ocean and using laser technology can measure the thickness of ice from orbit. 
SMAP

Soil Moisture Active Passive (SMAP) has been helping collect a “‘snapshot' of soil moisture every 2 to 3 days,” since 2015. It helps predict areas that may be at risk of droughts and floods. In addition, it also helps with other issues such as human health, forecasting, and agricultural productivity.
These aren’t all of the space missions, and more are working to help us save our planet. Hundreds of space missions are helping us all achieve this goal. 

Sources:  

USAToday  

https://earth.jpl.nasa.gov/emit/

https://science.nasa.gov/earth-science/climate-history/

2024 Solar Eclipse Break Down: Part 3 by Kale Cunningham

This upcoming Monday, April 8, will be the 2024 solar eclipse. This is the last article I will release before the solar eclipse. In my previous articles, I discussed what happens during a solar eclipse and safety advice. This article will focus on viewing conditions, the time the solar eclipse will take, and last-minute advice.

Weather

(Please note that this weather report is for State College Pennsylvania only. If you are traveling to see the eclipse then please rely on another source. ) 

Although this week is rainy, cloudy, and cold, next Monday should warm up into the low to mid-60s. The chance of rain is currently under 15%. Unless you are viewing the eclipse at a higher elevation, you shouldn’t need a coat to view the solar eclipse. The sky will be good for observing the solar eclipse. Currently, the forecasts are calling for a sunny day with fairly clear with a few scattered clouds. Perfect for viewing an eclipse.

(Please note that the weather can change, I’ve linked a reliable weather forecast that updates below.) 

What's So Special About This Eclipse?

According to NASA, the 2024 eclipse will be bigger and longer compared to the previous 2017 eclipse. Although the Moon stays at a somewhat consistent distance from Earth, its orbit takes it slightly further and closer to Earth. During the 2017 eclipse, the Moon was farther away from the Earth, which resulted in the Sun's light covering up less of the Moon. However, during the 2024 eclipse, the Moon’s orbit should be closer to Earth. This results in the Moon appearing larger covering up more and blocking out sunlight for much longer.

Last Minute Advice And Facts 

The 2017 eclipse attracted a record-breaking “215 million U.S. adults (88% of U.S. adults) viewed the solar eclipse, either directly or electronically.” According to NASA. 

This eclipse an estimated 5 million people will watch it live. And even more, are expected to watch the eclipse on a live stream. 

Avoid crowded cities such as Houston, Louisville, Columbus, Detroit, Eire, and Pittsburgh. If you want to see the eclipse in silence.     

Thank you and enjoy the eclipse

Want to see the weather for April 8? Click here! 

Can’t watch the eclipse in person? No worries! Click here to view the live stream

For more information visit NASA.gov

Sources: PBS, NASA. gov, USA Today 

2024 Solar Eclipse Break Down: Part Two By Kale Cunningham

When I wrote about the 2024 Solar Eclipse a few months ago, I covered the basics of what a solar eclipse is and the best places to see it. I plan to write another article in the upcoming weeks that will cover the weather conditions and last-minute details on April, 8 the day that the Eclipse is supposed to happen. Today, however, I will be discussing safety, what to expect, and the time that the eclipse is supposed to happen. 

Safety

The biggest tip of advice for safety when watching the eclipse? DO NOT LOOK DIRECTLY AT THE SUN WITH YOUR BARE EYES!   Looking directly at the sun with your bare eyes can damage your eyesight temporarily or permanently.

NASA also states that “(v)iewing any part of the bright Sun through a camera lens, binoculars, or a telescope without a special-purpose solar filter secured over the front of the optics will instantly cause severe eye injury.” If you want to watch the eclipse without shielding your eyes, you can get approved eclipse glasses which are around a thousand times darker than standard sunglasses. 

NASA says that “regular sunglasses, no matter how dark, are not safe for viewing the Sun.” 

Below I’ve linked reliable solar eclipse glasses and lenses for telescopes that can be used during the eclipse. However, if you do order them, please note that if they are damaged in any way, do not use them.

What To Expect.

If the safety section of this article made you terrified of solar eclipses, then this should hopefully restore your confidence that an eclipse is a good thing. The eclipse on Monday, April 8 will be the last total eclipse seen in the U.S. until 2044. The Moon will pass in front of the sun and completely block out all Sunlight for several minutes. The stages of the eclipse will follow in this order:

First the moon will come in from the East, and start covering up the Sun. This is called a partial eclipse. In most places, this should last around 70 and 80 minutes according to NASA. 

Next, the Moon will start to cover up a large portion of the Sun. However, little beads of sunlight will start to get through this stage.  This phenomenon is called Baily’s Beads because little beads of sunlight are getting through. 

After that, the Moon and Sun go into what's called a Diamond Ring. This is when only a small ring of sunlight is visible. According to NASA, “(t)his bright spot resembles the diamond in a giant diamond ring formed by the rest of the Sun’s atmosphere.” 

Finally, we reach the Totality, which happens when all direct Sunlight is completely blocked out, we only can see the Moon. In some locations, Totality will only last a minute or two; however, in other places, it will last almost ten minutes. 

After that, we go back through all the other stages, and then the moon leaves and there is nothing but our normal sun.

Time

Finally, the following times for the eclipse are 2:30 p.m. EDT and for CST (Central Time) 1:30 p.m. Enjoy the Eclipse! 

For more information about the Eclipse click here! 

Click here to find professionally approved solar eclipse glasses and lenses for your telescope/binoculars!  

Sources: USA TODAY and NASA.gov 

The Mighty Maus, Heaviest Tank In World History… Literally…by Stephen Austin

The one tank that shook the world to its core, when it took its first test - drive through the vast roads and pathways of Nazi Germany, making thunder every smack of the tread on the ground, the Panzerkampfwagen V l  l l Maus was born. Existing in the extreme heat, near the end, of WW2, 1944, the newly invented Maus (Panzer V l  l l) was roaming around the streets of Germany in its final Nazi stages, and came into existence relatively quietly. 

The Maus tank was made and constructed in secrecy because it was made to be the heaviest land vehicle to ever exist. The Maus tank was created to have the best armor and a very over-the-top main cannon to help protect itself and destroy anything in its way. The main reason it was conceived was because at the time, the USSR had been advancing in tank technology very quickly and were making more tanks that had better armor, stronger guns, and were getting faster at the same time. This was a huge problem for Germany because the USSR was becoming a very difficult combatant to deal with, which would also eventually lead to their downfall if they did not act soon with something. At this point in panic, the Maus tank was made. Plans for the project were quickly conceived and not very long, as being very tight on schedule, blueprints were then made and actions for the project started taking place. The Maus first was planned to have a flamethrower on it as an addition to its 150 mm main gun, however, after consideration and costs, the idea of a flamethrower was quickly removed, and instead replaced with a smaller gun.

Production of the Muas was set in 1943, being first introduced as a secret super weapon to fight against anything and anyone it was faced against. The Maus was kitted with a staggering 150 mm gun that could penetrate just about anything that was in its path, having roughly 130 mm of actual penetration, with an additional 75 mm coaxial gun mounted to the front. The Muas was also equipped with an insane 200 mm of armor, as an example, this is equivalent to stacking five doors, on the flat side, together. To put this into perspective, the average medium tank near the end of WW2 (1945) had about 60 mm thick armor and was equipped with a 75 - 85 mm gun, sometimes with a 50 cal mounted-machine gun on top. This was a huge upgrade up to this point, even just the secondary gun on the Maus was about as big as the average gun on a medium tank at this time period. The armor is also about two and a half times thicker and stronger than the average thickness of a light tank.

As good as the Maus sounded, it had some major drawbacks regarding its strengths and some huge weaknesses that were so bad to the point that there were only two ever made, and only one seeing the end of the war. During its time in WW2, there were two Maus’s to ever be made, however only one of them would come out of the war “alive”. The Maus had crazy thick armor and an insanely big gun because it was seen to be the wonder weapon, however, what German scientists forgot about was movement. Because of the Maus’s unconceivable weight of 188 tons, it took a lot of force to get the tank to move. The Maus had a 1,750 horsepower engine, which even for today's standard is absolutely insane, however even with all of the power it gained from the engine, it still only moved at a top speed of fifteen and a half miles per hour, which is far from sufficient enough for a tank to actually be considered good. A tank going that slow on the battlefield was basically a free target to hit, and even the slowest of tanks in WW2 could go at least twenty miles per hour, at which the Maus goes four fifths of that. The rotating turret on the top of the main shell also moved very slowly, losing a ton in mobility for mid combat situations. The rotating turret on the top of tanks is what usually makes tanks distinguishable to other vehicles. Usually the ammunition is stored in the turret and sometimes in the main hull if there is an overflow of ammo. When there is not a lot of mobility in the rotating turret, it is much harder to actually hit targets that are moving or even just generally hitting targets. Going back to the mobility problem that it was just a standing target, that is the sole reason that the Maus actually was taken out by an intense bombing after the USSR was closing in on the tank.

The Maus was the heaviest tank in all of world history, both literally and figuratively, and was a staple in engineering during WW2. The Maus shows the drastic measures that countries will go to just to win a war. If the Maus was ever actually made, it possibly would have been an, okay at most tank, however, due to its testing being postponed by bombings and the end of the war, the plans for making it never went into effect. The Maus was only made as two prototypes, however, one was destroyed in testing, and the other was destroyed in fear that the USSR was going to take and steal the design of the Maus and use it against them, if the Germans had not lost the war soon after being compromised. Also, the Maus was a descendent of the panzer family, being the eighth one.

Work Cited

Candlin, Alex. “The super heavy Panzer VIII Maus, Hitler's secret monster tank that never saw combat.” Forces Network, 10 July 2023, https://www.forces.net/heritage/wwii/adolf-hitlers-secret-monster-tank-super-heavy-panzer-viii-maus. Accessed 14 March 2024

Private Japanese Rocket Self-Destructs During Launch by Kale Cunningham

Space One is a private space company stationed in Japan that attempted to launch its rocket, the Kairos yesterday (Wednesday, March 13th.) The rocket successfully cleared the launch tower, however, seconds later, the rocket unexpectedly exploded. The explosion was so loud that it was reportedly heard from several miles away. 

Space One

Space One is a private Japanese aerospace company, which was founded in 2018. The company has the goal of putting the first private Japanese satellite into Earth orbit. Space One is a part of Japan’s rapidly growing space exploration industry. The country has scored many victories in space in the past several years, including adding a large laboratory to the ISS in 2008 and more recently becoming the 5th country to land on the Moon. 

Space One has the goal of “providing a commercial space transportation service for sending satellites into space.”  

Kairos

The Kairos rocket is Space One’s first space launch vehicle. It stands at 60 feet and weighs over 20 tons. Even though this may seem very intimidating the Kairos is quite small compared to other rockets such as NASA’s SLS which stands at 321 feet and weighs in at around 2,610 tons. The Kairos is also fairly inexpensive, only costing 7 million. (For comparison it takes SpaceX, another private company over 60 million to launch one of their rockets.)

Yesterday was Kairos median flight, its mission was to carry Japan’s frist private satellite into a low Earth orbit. However, the spacecraft malfunctioned after it cleared 100 feet and exploded. As of today, Space One has launched an investigation, which could take several months. Although no major discoveries into what may have caused the explosion have been made yet, Space One announced the autonomous flight termination system (a system that destroys the rocket if it flies off course for the safety of people on the ground.) May have malfunctioned and activated destroying the rocket.

Sources: USA TODAY    

U.S. Lands On The Moon For The First Time In 50 Years by Kale Cunningham

On Thursday, Feb. 22, the spacecraft Odysseus touched down on the lunar surface. This marks the first time since 1972 that an American probe landed on the moon. Even though the landing was successful, the spacecraft landed unbalanced and tipped over. Fortunately, a nearby rock managed to prop the spacecraft at a 90-degree angle, allowing the spacecraft to perform its scientific experiments on the Moon. 

Odysseus

Odysseus stands at a height of 13 feet; the spacecraft’s estimated cost was around 120 million dollars. The spacecraft was the result of a joint mission between Intuitive Machines, a private aerospace company, and NASA. The spacecraft’s design was built by Intuitive Machines, but it carries 6 NASA instruments for learning about the lunar environment for when people return sometime later this decade. The spacecraft was launched on February 15, hitching a ride on board SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket. After spending several days in space, Odysseus entered lunar orbit and slowly descended to the lunar surface. Although the spacecraft is slightly tipped over,  the mission was congratulated as a success. 

"You can say whatever you want to say," says Steve Altemus, the founder and chief executive of Intuitive Machines. "But from my perspective, this is an absolute success of a mission. Holy crap. The things that you go through to fly to the Moon. The learning, just every step of the way, is tremendous." 

NASA’s administrator, Bill Nelson, also commented on the successful landing, stating that the feats that Intuitive Machines performed “demonstrates the promise of American leadership in space and the power of commercial partnerships under NASA’s CLPS initiative. Further, this success opens the door for new voyages under Artemis to send astronauts to the Moon, then onward to Mars.”  

End of Mission 

Even though the mission has been very successful, the spacecraft’s 90-degree landing has pointed Odysseus’s solar panels away from the Sun. This has resulted in the spacecraft losing a significant amount of power and energy. It is expected that its battery will run out on Feb. 29, and there is a possibility that in two weeks the spacecraft will be pointed towards the sun again and that it will wake up. However, NASA has described this as a slim possibility. But nevertheless, America is thrilled that we have returned to the Moon. 

"The reason we made it is right here, our people," Altemus said after the landing. "The team we had, what they did, oh my God. They never quit. The perseverance, the resilience, just the power of the people we have in this team. That's why we're on the Moon." 

Sources: 

NASA. gov

ars-Technica

Birds of Pennsylvania by Henry Cleveland

Click here to read the article about Pennsylvania Birds

Image Source: Unsplash

Help the Dolphins by Juan Lorber

Did you know one of the most well-known marine animals is in great danger? The dolphins are fighting to survive because of prey shortage from human fishing, river trafficking, and most well-known, pollution. So many people are fishing for food and aren’t thinking about what it could change. But, it changes so much because sharks, other fish, and DOLPHINS still need food to survive like we do. Humans were hunting and selling dolphins, even killing them for food. This was until dolphin exports became illegal, but it was only for the Soloman islands. The oceans are also getting wildly polluted by people throwing trash into the ocean not thinking it would become a big cause until everyone followed. It caused so many marine animals to be endangered and some at the verge of extinction. But there are things we can do to help! We can stop using so much plastic, join beach cleanup clubs, and also travel the sea responsibly.